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Zen terror: Master Nissho Inoue and his band of assassins teach some uncomfortable truths about terrorism

Part One
parts 2, 3, and 4 below

Brian Victoria, Researcher, Kyoto, Japan. Brian Victoria is a senior research fellow at the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, a recognised independent centre of the University of Oxford. He is also a Buddhist priest in the Soto Zen sect. He is author of Zen War Stories (2003) and Zen at War (2006), and most recently Zen Terror in Prewar Japan: Portrait of an Assassin (2020). 

 On an early winter’s morning in 1945, four months after the end of the Second World War, a shabbily dressed man in his late 50s walked into the General Headquarters (GHQ) of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers in Tokyo. His name was Nissho Inoue, a convicted domestic terrorist and lay disciple of one of Japan’s most famous modern Zen masters, Gempo Yamamoto, abbot of both Ryutaku-ji and Shoin-ji temples.Inoue had been instructed to report for questioning as a war-criminal suspect because he had once been the leader of a terrorist band, popularly known as the “Blood Oath Corps.” His civilian band members were initially responsible for the deaths of two of Japan’s political and financial leaders in the spring of 1932, with plans to assassinate many more. A second group of military band members assassinated Prime Minister Tsuyoshi Inukai on 15 May 1932.

Once inside the GHQ, Inoue was led to the office of Lt Parsons, the British officer who was to interrogate him. Lt Parsons began his interrogation:

“Mr Inoue, I didn’t request your appearance today in order to find out what you did before and during the war. We already know what you did. We know you were not only an ultra-right-wing nationalist but the leader of a band of terrorists as well. In fact, it is a matter of common knowledge the world over that it was you who started the Second World War. There’s no point denying it. It’s therefore unnecessary for me to enquire about any of this.”

Inoue denied the allegations. Historically however, it is true that the terror resulting from the assassinations he led brought an end to Japanese democracy: i.e. an end to the popularly elected, party-based, parliamentary government that had come into existence during the reign of Emperor Taisho (1912-26). Henceforth, from 1932 through to the end of the Second World War, the emperor and his advisors would appoint prime ministers. This consolidation of imperial power in turn made possible the Japanese military’s invasion of China in July 1937, eventually leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. Thus, Lt Parsons’s charges were not as farfetched as they might appear at first.

What had motivated Inoue and his band to undertake their terrorist acts? After all, neither Zen nor Buddhism is known for its involvement in terrorism.

Following his father’s death in 1926, Emperor Hirohito had ascended the throne at a time of great social and political domestic instability. Across Japan, banks were closing, and the government was arresting Left-wing activists, accusing them of harboring ‘dangerous thoughts’ as defined by the Peace Preservation Law.

The Great Depression that began in the United States in 1929 greatly reduced both demand and prices for raw silk, Japan’s single largest export product. At the same time, Japan’s population was increasing by nearly 1 million people a year. Its workforce was growing at an annual rate of approximately 450,000 people, all seeking jobs in a shrinking economy.

https://ecp.yusercontent.com/mail?url=https%3A%2F%2Fd2e1bqvws99ptg.cloudfront.net%2Fuser_image_upload%2F1039%2Finsert-Boys-eating-radishe-copy.jpg&t=1592105754&ymreqid=34e6a50b-3007-0c22-1c24-09000101ed00&sig=j.wtoOLmWiMHcrwrMfq6qg--~CHungry Children in Iwate prefecture in northern Japan in November 1934. They are eating raw white radishes (daikon) to assuage their hunger. Photo courtesy the author.

In addition, successive poor harvests in the early 1930s, especially in the northern prefectures, brought widespread starvation to many parts of the country. Rural debt rose rapidly, leading to delinquent tax payments, and more and more farmers either lost their land altogether or were forced to take desperate measures, such as selling their daughters into prostitution. Japanese society was in a state of crisis that in many people’s eyes required immediate and drastic remedies.

Inoue, who had begun his Zen training in Manchuria, responded to this crisis by accepting an invitation to head a newly built Buddhist temple. It was 1928 and the new temple was in the village of Oarai, near the city of Mito north of Tokyo. Inoue threw himself into the work of training a small group of about 20 young people. He drew on a variety of Zen training methods, including meditation practice; assigning koans (Zen riddles) and conducting private interviews with his disciples, all to create an intrepid group of volunteers with a ‘do or die’ spirit.

At first, Inoue planned to train young people for legal political activism. However, by 1930, under the pressure of events and young civilian and military activists, Inoue decided to take more resolute measures. “In an emergency situation,” he wrote, “emergency measures are necessary. What is essential is to restore life to the nation. Discussions over the methods for doing this can come later, much later.” Inoue fully expected that his political actions would lead to his death: “We had taken it upon ourselves to engage in destruction, aware that we would perish in the process.”

In his previous Zen training, Inoue found the basis for his commitment to destruction. Drawing on the lessons of a 13th-century Zen collection of koans known as the Mumonkan, or ‘The Gateless Barrier’, he claimed:

“Revolution employs compassion on behalf of the society of the nation. Therefore those who wish to participate in revolution must have a mind of great compassion toward the society of the nation. In light of this there must be no thought of reward for participating in revolution.”

In other words, in the violently destructive acts of revolution one would find the mind of Buddhist compassion.

He and his band members were prepared to die in the process of the revolution

In October 1930, Inoue and his band shifted their base of operations to Tokyo. From there, he recruited more young people, including some from Japan’s most prestigious universities. One of Inoue’s band members later explained: “We sought to extinguish Self itself.”

Inoue’s band chose assassination as their method of revolution. Assassination, Inoue explained, “required, whether successful or not, the least number of victims.” He also thought it “was best for the country, untainted by the least self-interest.” He and his band members were prepared to die in the process of the revolution. By being prepared to sacrifice themselves, they believed they could ensure that as few people as possible would fall victim to revolutionary violence.

They intended to assassinate some 20 Japanese political and financial leaders but managed to kill only two before the remaining band members, Inoue included, were arrested. Junnosuke Inoue (1869-1932), a former finance minister, was their first victim, shot on the evening of 9 February 1932 as he entered Komamoto Elementary School in Tokyo to deliver an election speech. His assassin was 20-year-old Sho Onuma (1911-1978), a onetime baker’s assistant and carpenter’s apprentice.

On the morning of the assassination, Onuma was uncertain whether he would be able to carry out his assignment. Seeking strength from his Buddhist training, Onuma recited four sections of the Lotus Sutra to calm himself. Thereafter, he started to practice Zen meditation: “When I opened my eyes from their half-closed meditative position, I noticed the smoke from the incense curling up and touching the ceiling. At this point it suddenly came to me – I would be able to carry out [the assassination] that night.”

Baron Takuma Dan (1858-1932), the managing director of the Mitsui holding company and a financial magnate, was their second victim, shot as his car pulled up to the side entrance of the Mitsui Bank Building. The assassin was 21-year-old Goro Hishinuma. Six days after Dan’s death, and realizing that his arrest was imminent, Inoue surrendered to the police.

The trial of Inoue and his band began on 28 June 1933. At the third hearing, Inoue’s chief lawyer initiated a process that ultimately resulted in the presiding judge stepping down from the case due to such inappropriate actions as “yawning” and “looking around” during deliberations. The trial did not resume until 27 March 1934 under a new chief judge who gave the 14 defendants, including Inoue, the right to not only wear formal kimono (instead of prison garb) in the courtroom but to expound at length on the “patriotic” motivation for their acts.

In his court testimony, Inoue made it clear that his Buddhist faith lay at the heart of his actions: “I was primarily guided by Buddhist thought in what I did. That is to say, I believe the teachings of the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism as they presently exist in Japan are wonderful.”

With regard to Zen, Inoue said: “I reached where I am today thanks to Zen. Zen dislikes talking theory so I can’t put it into words, but it is true nonetheless.” Inoue went on to describe an especially Zen-like manner of thinking when he was asked about the particular political ideology that had informed his actions. He replied: “It is more correct to say that I have no systematized ideas. I transcend reason and act completely upon intuition.”

The Zen influence on Inoue’s statement is clear. Here, for example, is what D T Suzuki had to say in Zen and Japanese Culture (1938):

“Zen upholds intuition against intellection, for intuition is the more direct way of reaching the Truth. Therefore, morally and philosophically, there is in Zen a great deal of attraction for the military classes . . . This is probably one of the main reasons for the close relationship between Zen and the samurai.”

Inoue testified that Buddhism taught the existence of “Buddha nature.” Although Buddha nature is universally present, he argued, it is concealed by passions, producing ignorance, attachment and degradation. He saw the Japanese nation as being similar. Its nature was truly magnificent, identical with the “absolute nature of the universe itself.” However, human passions for money and power and other fleeting things had corrupted the polity.

At this point, the judge interrupted to ask: “In the final analysis, what you are saying is that the national polity of Japan, as an expression of universal truth, has been clouded over?”

Inoue replied: “That’s right. It is due to various passions that our national polity has been clouded over. It is we who have taken it on ourselves to disperse these clouds.”

Inoue meant that in killing (and planning to kill), he and his band were restoring the brilliance and purity of the Japanese nation. Their victims had been mere obscuring “clouds.”

The morning edition of The Asahi Shimbun newspaper on 15 September 1934 carried the news: “Zen Master Gempo Yamamoto, spiritual father of Nissho Inoue, arrives in Tokyo to testify in court.” Yamamoto claims: “I’m the only one who understands Inoue’s state of mind.”

Yamamoto testified that “in light of the events that have befallen our nation of late, there is, apart from those who are selfish and evil, no fair and upright person who would criticize the accused for their actions.” Why? Because Yamamoto claimed that their actions were “one with the national spirit.” But what about the Buddhist prohibition against taking life? Yamamoto explained:

“It is true that if, motivated by an evil mind, someone should kill so much as a single ant, as many as 136 hells await that person. . . Yet, the Buddha, being absolute, has stated that when there are those who destroy social harmony and injure the polity of the state, then even if they are called good men killing them is not a crime.”

While there is no question that Buddhism promotes “social harmony” between both individuals and groups, support for killing “those who destroy social harmony and injure the polity of the state” is not to be found in Buddhist sutras. Instead, the source of these ideas is found in neo-Confucianism, whose social ethics emphasize the importance of social harmony achieved through a reciprocal relationship of justice between superiors, who are urged to be benevolent, and subordinates, who are required to be obedient and loyal.

Japanese Zen accepted and taught neo-Confucianism in Japan from the 1400s onwards even while continuing to pay lip-service to Buddhism’s traditional precepts. In pre-war Japan, the state was headed by an allegedly divine emperor whose benevolence extended to the wellbeing of all Asian peoples, especially those colonized by Western nations or endangered by the spread of communism. It was the emperor to whom the Japanese people were taught they owed absolute obedience and loyalty. Believing this, Yamamoto ended his testimony by stating:

“Inoue’s hope is not only for the victory of Imperial Japan, but he also recognizes that the wellbeing of all the colored races (i.e. their life, death or possible enslavement) is dependent on the Spirit of Japan. There is, I am confident, no one who does not recognize this truth.”

In the eyes of one of Japan’s most highly respected Rinzai Zen sect masters, who conflated Buddhist and neo-Confucianist ethics, Inoue and his band’s terrorist acts were by no means “unBuddhist” or blameworthy. And despite his court testimony defending terrorists, Yamamoto was so highly respected by his fellow Zen masters that they chose him to head the entire Rinzai Zen sect in the years following Japan’s defeat in August 1945. As for Inoue, master and disciple remained close until the former’s death in 1961.

Inoue and his band members were all found guilty. On 22 November 1934, he and the two assassins were given life sentences, while the other band members received sentences ranging from 15 to as few as three years.

By Japanese standards, the sentences were lenient. In addition, in early 1935, 11 of the accused were amnestied and released from prison. Inoue’s sentence was shortened until in 1940 he, too, was released from prison. In a most unusual step, Inoue’s guilty verdict was completely erased from the judicial record. It was as if he had never been involved in terrorism at all.

In another surprising development, shortly after his release from prison, the prime minister Prince Fumimaro Konoe (1891-1945) invited Inoue to become his advisor, providing him with living quarters on his estate. That is to say, a former leader of a band of terrorists had exchanged his prison cell for life on a prime minister’s estate. Clearly, Inoue had the support of some of Japan’s most important political leaders.

Moreover, Inoue never admitted to any kind of remorse for having ordered the assassination of some 20 Japanese political and financial leaders, of whom two were killed initially and one, Prime Minister Inukai, killed shortly thereafter. In fact, Inoue later wrote describing his actions as having “dealt a blow to the transgressors of the Buddha’s teachings.”

Religious terrorism, of course, remains a current reality. The question can be asked, are there any lessons for the present to be learned from the Zen-affiliated terrorism described here?

First, Inoue’s story reminds us that terrorism is a tactic employed by the weak against the strong for the simple reason that terrorists lack the means to employ any other method. Initially, Inoue had no intention of engaging in terrorist acts. But he reached the conclusion that social reform couldn’t wait, and embraced terrorism as the only tactic left open to him. To believe, as many governments claim, that it is possible to ‘stamp out’ or ‘eradicate’ terrorism by killing all terrorists, or suspected terrorists, is akin to believing, in the case of an air force, that aerial bombardment as a tactic of warfare could be permanently eliminated if every living bombardier (or drone operator) were killed.

Second, terrorism is not simply an isolated product of crazed or fanatical religious adherents. Instead, there are nearly always underlying political, economic and social causes. Japan in the 1930s was a socially and economically unjust society. Corrupt economic and political leaders showed little concern for the welfare of the majority of the Japanese people. The economic disparity between rich and poor led to attempts, increasingly violent, to enact social reform. To many Japanese frustrated with ineffective peaceful and legal efforts, terror seemed to be the only remaining avenue available to enact change.

Third, terrorists do not view themselves as hate-filled, bloodthirsty monsters. Instead, as incongruous as it might seem, many are motivated, like Inoue, by nothing less than ‘compassion’ or a deep concern for their compatriots. “Kill one in order that many may live” is how Inoue and his band put it. They believed compassion and concern for the wellbeing of the majority of the exploited and oppressed in Japan, especially the rural poor, justified their violent actions. It couldn’t be helped if a few had to die for the majority to flourish.

No matter how inhumane their acts, they are moral in their own eyes by virtue of their concern for others.

Finally, it is important to recognize that religion-related terrorists care so much about protecting or rescuing those in perceived need that they are willing to sacrifice their own lives in the process of carrying out their terrorist acts. Inoue and his band regarded themselves as no more than ‘sacrificial stones’ (pawns) in the struggle to reform Japan. This conviction allowed them to view themselves as Buddhist Bodhisattvas, figures ever-ready to sacrifice their own welfare for the sake of others. Such self-sacrifice resonates with the tenets of many religious faiths, and helps terrorists to see themselves as not only ethical but even unselfish exemplars of their faith.

https://ecp.yusercontent.com/mail?url=https%3A%2F%2Fd2e1bqvws99ptg.cloudfront.net%2Fuser_image_upload%2F1040%2Finsert-Nissho-Inoue%27s-temple.jpg&t=1592105754&ymreqid=34e6a50b-3007-0c22-1c24-09000101ed00&sig=T83j2SqidqAMRbo2EWjEhw--~CTemple where Nissho Inoue and his terrorist trained as it appears today. It’s full title is “Rissho Gokokudo” (Temple to Protect the Nation [by] Establishing the True [Dharma]). Photo courtesy the author.

It’s this view of themselves as ‘good’ and ‘self-sacrificial’ that allows many terrorists to commit their heinous acts, secure in the mistaken belief that they are acting ethically and according to the highest dictates of their faith. Thus, to demonize terrorists, turning them into evil incarnate, is to fail to recognize their most salient characteristic. No matter how twisted and inhumane their acts are, they are nonetheless moral in their own eyes by virtue of their concern for others, their willingness to sacrifice themselves on their (or God’s) behalf. Thus, depending on the context, religious-affiliated terrorists regard themselves as ‘freedom fighters’, ‘heroes of the faith’ or, more typically, ‘martyrs’.

One common sentiment throughout the world – at least in non-Islamic countries – is that Islam, or at least some aspects of ‘Islamic fundamentalism’, is primarily if not solely responsible for religion-related terrorist acts. The proffered ‘solution’ (or demand) is that Muslims change their terror-prone religion into a religion of peace by abandoning such doctrines as jihad. The unstated assumption is, of course, that the world’s other major religions lack such violence-affirming doctrines and are completely peaceful. However, as Inoue and his band reveal, Buddhism, especially in its Zen formulation, is quite capable of providing the justification to kill even those whom Zen Master Gempo Yamamoto referred to as “good men.”

Historically speaking, no religion is free from having been invoked or contributing to terrorist acts or providing the supposed justification for terrorism. Among religions, today’s ‘Islamic terror’ is no more than the ‘flavor of the day’ or the immediate problem. This is certainly not to deny that Islam-related terror is a deadly serious issue, but it is also a Buddhist, a Christian, a Jewish and a Hindu issue. Simply placing the blame on Islam blocks a solution since it prevents mutual understanding and leads to an unfounded, self-righteous attitude on the part of adherents of non-Islamic faiths. It also raises the thorny question of why it is considered bad to kill people in the name of a religion, for example Islam, yet acceptable, even praiseworthy, to kill them in the name of the state.

In seeking to understand acts of terrorism, the question ‘Who benefits?’ must always be asked. The historical record reveals that even governments, or at least parts of governments, are willing to support terrorist acts if this advances what they regard as their national interest. It’s not unusual for powerful, behind-the-scenes actors, including governments, to serve as ‘enablers’ of terrorism through funding, supply of weapons, training, suggested targets, etc.

The true solution to terror is one that is seldom discussed, and even less often acted upon. Namely, the solution to all but ‘lone-wolf’ acts of terror is the establishment of socially and economically just societies, no matter how difficult that might be. Where oppression exists, resistance is inevitable. Religion is one of the most available means of organizing resistance, for it provides an emotionally powerful and compelling way to speak and think about sacrifice and justice. But it is critically important to remember that state and secular forces in society seek to maintain, or even enhance, their own power by secretly funding and supporting terrorists, capitalizing on the religious fervor of believers, especially the latter’s willingness to sacrifice themselves. Terrorism, at least on a large scale, could not exist without their support.

At the same time, those who believe in the salvific power of religion must acknowledge how easily their religion’s highest ideals can be, and have been, hijacked by those seeking to enhance their worldly power. In the absence of critical self-reflection on the part of all religious adherents, the cycle of religion-affiliated terrorism will never be broken. In words attributed to the 17th-century French scientist Blaise Pascal: “Men never do evil so completely and cheerfully as when they do it from religious conviction.” If nothing else, this is the lasting legacy, and lasting warning, that Inoue and his band of Zen terrorists have left us.

 Brian Victoria - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

 

 

 

"Compassionate Killing-Zen Terror"

Part II of Brian Victoria's Four-part Series:

Compassionate Assassinations: The Role of Zen Buddhism in Inoue Nissho's ultranationalist violence in 1932 Japan.

In Part II of Brian Victoria’s essay series presented by the Library of Social Science, we delve deeper into the philosophical and religious underpinnings used to justify Inoue Nissho’s determination to assassinate the individuals he—and the emperor—felt were standing in the way of the Showa Restoration.

From the zazen meditation to the absolute loyalty that demanded nothing short of complete sacrifice, Brian shows us that, under the right conditions, even Zen Buddhism can be coopted to warrant killing for an ideal. Citing Inoue’s own testimony as well as that of one of his assassins, Brian explores the mentality of those who felt they were acting in the best interests of the Japanese people as well as in accordance with the codes of the samurai and the teachings of both Zen and Neo-Confucianism.

 

Brian Victoria, author of Zen Terror, Zen War Stories, and Zen at War, is a well-known author specializing in Japanese  history, a career professor, and Buddhist priest of the Soto Zen sect--giving him a unique perspective on the intersection between Zen Buddhism and nationalist violence.

Brian holds a Master's in Buddhist Studies from Komazawa University in Tokyo and a PhD in Religious Studies from Temple University. His distinguished career has taken him around the world, including teaching positions in Buddhism, Japanese language and culture in the United States, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. From 2013-2015 Brian was a visiting research fellow at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies in Kyoto and is currently a Senior Research Fellow at the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. Brian Victoria's work on Japanese militarism represents the highest standard of scholarly rigor and expertise.

 

 

Zen Terror in Prewar Japan by Brian Victoria



To view Brian's wikipedia page click here.

Zen Terror in Prewar Japan: Portrait of an Assassin

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Zen Terror in Prewar Japan completes the trilogy detailing how Zen Buddhism gave rise to terrorism. Exploring the role of Inoue Nissho - the leader of the terrorist group of right-wing ultranationalism in prewar Japan, Brian Victoria sheds light on how the dark underbelly of a religion known for its promotion of peace was used to justify violence. 

REVIEWS

Brian Victoria masterfully describes how peace-practicing Zen Buddhism was utilized as an ideological weapon for justifying terrorist acts in prewar Japan, fervently supporting Japan’s emperor system ideology. The book is not just an historical study but also a dire warning of the danger that, if abused, a peace-loving religion can be exploited to rationalize violence.

— Yuki Tanaka, author of Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II

I am delighted to draw attention to the work of Brian Victoria. His expertise in Zen Buddhism comes both from intensive study of the Japanese sources and from his many years of personal experience. In both areas he has devoted himself to finding the truth and to conveying it with unflinching honesty and lucidity. His bold statements and candid judgments are supported by unambiguous evidence and deserve to be pondered on by all who care about Buddhism and have humane values at heart.

— Richard Gombrich, Boden Professor of Sanskrit Emeritus, University of Oxford

INTRODUCTION TO PART II OF THE SERIES

This essay introduces us to the surprising background of Inoue Nisshō, for not only was he an accomplished zen practitioner but he was also the former head of a band of zen-trained terrorists in 1930's japan. But how could the doctrine and practice of the zen school have made the terrorist acts of Inoue's band possible? After addressing this question, the essay looks at the significant role the three assassinations carried out by Inoue's band had in restoring political power to emperor Hirohito. 

PART II: COMPASSIONATE KILLING-ZEN TERROR 

Part I of this series introduced readers to Inoue Nisshō, the influential, live-in advisor to Konoe Fumimarō, prime minister of Japan in the months leading up to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

In addition to clearly identifying Emperor Hirohito as being in charge of Japan during the wartime era, the most surprising thing about Inoue is that he was the former head of a band of terrorists who had killed three leading Japanese politicians and corporate leaders in the spring of 1932, including then Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi. Perhaps even more surprisingly, Inoue was the Zen-trained disciple of Yamamoto Gempō, one the Rinzai Zen sect’s most prominent Zen masters.

In nearly all history books of the period, whether in Japanese or English, Inoue is described as having been affiliated with the nationalistic Nichiren sect of Buddhism. This affiliation fits in well with his role as the leader of an ultranationalist band of terrorists. However, as my book Zen Terror in Prewar Japan: Portrait of an Assassin makes clear, it was the doctrine and practice of the Zen school that made the terrorist acts of Inoue’s band possible. Why?

In the first place, following the Zen sect’s introduction to Japan from China in 1195, it became the preferred sect of the samurai class. Not only could samurai identify with the Spartan life-style of Zen monks, but, more importantly, Zen training provided them with a method of overcoming their fear of death on the battlefield. The cornerstone of Zen training is the practice of meditation, known as zazen.

Based on the fundamental Buddhist belief in the impermanent, and therefore ultimately unreal or empty nature of the "self," the samurai were taught by Zen masters like 17th century Takuan Sōhō that “if the [Zen] spirit in which the military arts is correct, you will enjoy freedom of movement, and though thousands of the enemy appear, you will be able to force them to submit with only one sword. This is [the meaning of] great loyalty.”

Teachings like these would exert a deep influence on both the samurai and the modern Japanese Imperial military, especially its officer class who regarded themselves as the descendants of the samurai. Why? Because the practice of introspective Zen meditation made it possible for them to free themselves from attachment to their ultimately non-existent selves and, in turn, give themselves in complete and unquestioning loyalty to their superiors, feudal lords in medieval Japan and the emperor in modern Japan.

During WW II, Lt. Col. Sugimoto Gorō, widely celebrated as a “god of war” (J. gunshin), wrote: “Through my practice of Zen I am able to get rid of my ego. In facilitating the accomplishment of this, Zen becomes, as it is, the true spirit of the imperial military.”

Needless to say, Takuan’s promise of Zen practice facilitating the overcoming of thousands of the enemy would be attractive to any warrior. Yet, readers familiar with Buddhism will recognize that the founder, Shakyamuni Buddha, never taught his followers to give unquestioning loyalty to their superiors. This was a teaching that had developed as a result of the Japanese Zen school’s wholesale adoption of neo-Confucian social ethics in the medieval era.

Not only did the Zen school effectively abandon Buddhist ethics, but Zen priests became the primary promulgators of neo-Confucianism--with its emphasis on loyalty unto death. The abandonment of Buddhist ethics, coupled with an ultimately unreal ego, also allowed the famous expositor of Zen, D.T. Suzuki, to write in 1938: “Without the sense of an ego, there is no moral responsibility, but the divine transcends morality.”

But what did Zen-promoted loyalty have to do with terrorism? The answer is everything because Inoue and his Zen-trained band were dedicated to something called the “Shōwa Restoration.” Although its calls for social reform were fuzzy, its main goal was clear--the restoration of complete political power to Emperor Hirohito, the alleged divine father of the nation.

Due to the physical and mental incapacitation of his father, Emperor Taishō, the youthful Hirohito had witnessed imperial power increasingly weakened due to the growth of liberal democracy, including universal male suffrage, collectively known as Taishō democracy (1912-1923).

Inoue and his terrorist band worked to destroy Taishō democracy, for they regarded it as composed of corrupt politicians colluding with rich corporate leaders who, in the wake of the Great Depression, showed little concern for the well-being of ordinary Japanese workers, farmers and unemployed. “Kill one that many may live” was the Buddhist-influenced slogan of Inoue’s band. Inoue instructed his band members as follows:

Revolution employs compassion on behalf of the society of the nation. Therefore those who wish to participate in revolution must have a mind of great compassion towards the society of the nation. In light of this there must be no thought of reward for participating in revolution. A revolution that does not encompass a mind of great compassion is not Buddhist. That is to say, revolution itself is the mind of great compassion.

As for the role Zen played in his thought, Inoue testified at his trial:

I reached where I am today thanks to Zen. Zen dislikes talking theory so I can’t put it into words, but it is true nonetheless....I have no systematized ideas. I transcend reason and act completely upon intuition.               

Onuma Shō, one of the terrorist assassins, explained the role Zen meditation (zazen) played in his preparations:

After starting my practice of zazen I entered a state of samādhi [mental concentration] the likes of which I had never experienced before. I felt my spirit become unified, really unified, and when I opened my eyes from their half-closed meditative position I noticed the smoke from the incense curling up and touching the ceiling. At this point it suddenly came to me, I would be able to carry out [the assassination] that night.”(i.e. February 9, 1932).

Onuma also testified on the importance of self-sacrifice:

Our goal was not to harm others but to destroy ourselves. We had no thought of simply killing others while surviving ourselves. We intended to smash ourselves, thereby allowing others to cross over [to a new society] on top of our own bodies.

 I think this is what our master Inoue meant when he told us that our goal was not to sacrifice personal affections on the altar of justice but to destroy ourselves. In the process of destroying ourselves it couldn’t be helped if there were [other] victims. This was the fundamental principle of our revolution. A mind of great compassion was the fundamental spirit of our revolution.

The assassinations had the desired effect, eliminating political party-based cabinets and effectively ending Taishō democracy. From that time through the end of WWII the emperor and his close advisors would appoint, and remove, successive prime ministers as they (not the military) saw fit. Whether Emperor Hirohito directly or indirectly influenced or supported Inoue and his band’s actions is unknown.

But there can be no doubt that Hirohito and his advisors were beneficiaries of the assassinations, for they were able to use them as a pretext, or excuse, for ending party-based cabinets in the name of restoring social stability. This may help to explain how it came to pass that Inoue, originally sentenced to life imprisonment in 1934, was not only released from prison in 1940 but had his entire conviction erased from the judicial record. Not only that, Inoue was then hired by Prime Minister Konoe as his live-in confidant. The “non-attachment to self” so beloved in Zen clearly had its rewards.

 

"Compassionate Killing in Buddhism"

Part III of Brian Victoria's Four-part Series:

Compassionate Assassinations: The Role of Zen Buddhism in Inoue Nissho's ultranationalist violence in 1932 Japan.

In Part III of Brian Victoria’s essays series presented by the Library of Social Science, we encounter a curious and contentious idea: that Inoue and his assassins believed themselves to be killing compassionately, a concept with precedent in Mahayana Buddhism. Like the bodhisattva who slew a murderer before he could claim lives of 500 holy ones, Inoue may have believed himself similarly beyond reproach. Like a pawn moved by players who sought the end of the corruptive Taisho democracy and the betterment of Japanese society, Inoue could act selflessly, empty of mind and free from the karmic repercussions that accrue to personal motivations. 

In a broader sense, we encounter in Inoue Nissho a psychology similar to that of political and religious terrorists, not necessarily the hate-filled monsters we often feel them to be. Rather, they are individuals consumed by fantasies that transform violence into nobility, death and sacrifice. Understanding how this occurs is one of the objectives of our work here at the LSS. Brian’s essay offers striking insight into this phenomenon. Please stay tuned for the final installment of Compassionate Assassinations, coming soon.

Best regards,
Alexander Chirila, PhD 

 

Brian Victoria, author of Zen Terror, Zen War Stories, and Zen at War, is a well-known author specializing in Japanese  history, a career professor, and Buddhist priest of the Soto Zen sect--giving him a unique perspective on the intersection between Zen Buddhism and nationalist violence.

Brian holds a Master's in Buddhist Studies from Komazawa University in Tokyo and a PhD in Religious Studies from Temple University. His distinguished career has taken him around the world, including teaching positions in Buddhism, Japanese language and culture in the United States, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. From 2013-2015 Brian was a visiting research fellow at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies in Kyoto and is currently a Senior Research Fellow at the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. Brian Victoria's work on Japanese militarism represents the highest standard of scholarly rigor and expertise.

 

 

Zen Terror in Prewar Japan by Brian Victoria



To view Brian's wikipedia page click here.

Zen Terror in Prewar Japan: Portrait of an Assassin

For information on ordering through Amazon, PLEASE CLICK HERE.

Zen Terror in Prewar Japan completes the trilogy detailing how Zen Buddhism gave rise to terrorism. Exploring the role of Inoue Nissho - the leader of the terrorist group of right-wing ultranationalism in prewar Japan, Brian Victoria sheds light on how the dark underbelly of a religion known for its promotion of peace was used to justify violence. 

REVIEWS

Brian Victoria masterfully describes how peace-practicing Zen Buddhism was utilized as an ideological weapon for justifying terrorist acts in prewar Japan, fervently supporting Japan’s emperor system ideology. The book is not just an historical study but also a dire warning of the danger that, if abused, a peace-loving religion can be exploited to rationalize violence.

 — Yuki Tanaka, author of Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II

I am delighted to draw attention to the work of Brian Victoria. His expertise in Zen Buddhism comes both from intensive study of the Japanese sources and from his many years of personal experience. In both areas he has devoted himself to finding the truth and to conveying it with unflinching honesty and lucidity. His bold statements and candid judgments are supported by unambiguous evidence and deserve to be pondered on by all who care about Buddhism and have humane values at heart.

 — Richard Gombrich, Boden Professor of Sanskrit Emeritus, University of Oxford

INTRODUCTION TO PART III OF THE SERIES

This essay examines two questions. First, Inoue and his band members repeatedly emphasized the compassionate nature of their terrorist acts. But given Buddhism's well-known commitment to non-harm, how was it possible for them to believe that "compassionate killing" was part of their Buddhist faith? Secondly, what was it in their Buddhist faith that made them prepared to sacrifice themselves, as so many disposable "pawns," in order to restore total political control to the emperor? 

PART III: COMPASSIONATE KILLING IN BUDDHISM 

Readers will recall that in Part Two of this series both Inoue and his band members repeatedly referred to the compassionate nature of their terrorist acts. But given Buddhism’s well-known commitment to non-killing, how was it possible for them to believe that “compassionate killing” was a part of the Buddhist faith? Was there any doctrinal basis for their conviction or had they just invented this term to justify their own twisted acts?

Sadly, at least for those who believe that Buddhism is a religion of peace, there is doctrinal justification for “compassionate killing,” in the Northern, or Mahāyāna, tradition of Buddhism. Specifically, the Upāyakauśalya Sūtra (Skillful Means Sutra) contains a story about Shakyamuni Buddha in a previous life, when he was as yet a Bodhisattva (Buddha-to-be) on his way to Buddhahood. 

As a ship’s captain, named “Greatly Compassionate,” Shakyamuni discerned there was a robber onboard whose intent was to rob and kill all five hundred of the passengers who were themselves Bodhisattvas. Although reluctant to take life, Shakyamuni ultimately decided to kill the robber. He did so, however, not only without ill will but, on the contrary, with compassion for both the would-be victims and even for the robber himself. Shakyamuni sought to prevent the robber from being reborn and suffering in hell as the karmic result of his murderous deeds.

On the one hand, Shakyamuni’s act of killing is presented in accordance with the view that acts of killing are instances of unwholesome karma, given the latter’s universal and inescapable nature. Nevertheless, although the negative karma resulting from his killing of the robber should have accrued even to Shakyamuni, it did not, for, as he explained, “Good man, because I used ingenuity [skillful means] out of great compassion at that time, I was able to avoid the suffering of one hundred thousand kalpas [eons] of samsāra [the ordinary world of form and desire], and that wicked man was reborn in heaven, a good plane of existence, after death.”

In all Buddhist traditions, the intent with which an act is done is a key determinant in deciding whether it is ethical or not. Thus, this sutra has often been used by a wide variety of Mahāyāna adherents to support the claim that a good Buddhist may kill if the act is done without ill will toward the victim. For example, the Dalai Lama, who identifies himself as a Mahāyāna adherent, takes this position. Despite his reputation as a champion of peace, the Dalai Lama defended the CIA-trained and funded Tibetan guerillas who killed Chinese soldiers from 1957 to 1969. The Dalai Lama stated, “If the motivation is good, and the goal is good, the method, even apparently of a violent kind, is permissible.”

In the case of Inoue and his band’s terrorist acts, the three men killed, out of some twenty intended victims could hardly be called foreign invaders. However, according to Zen master Yamamoto Gempō’s testimony as Inoue’s trial, they nevertheless deserved to die. Yamamoto explained:

It is true that if, motivated by an evil mind, someone should kill so much as a single ant, as many as one hundred and thirty-six hells await that person. This holds true not only in Japan but in all the countries of the world. Yet the Buddha, being absolute, has stated that when there are those who destroy social harmony and injure the polity of the state, then even if they are called good men, killing them is not a crime.

Although all Buddhist statuary manifests the spirit of Buddha, there are no Buddhist statues, other than those of Shakyamuni Buddha and Amida Buddha, who do not grasp the sword. Even the guardian Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva holds, in his manifestation as a victor in war, a spear in his hand. Thus Buddhism, which has as its foundation the true perfection of humanity, has no choice but to cut down even good people in the event they seek to destroy social harmony.

Inoue and his band were prepared from the outset to perish in the process of the revolution. The “selflessness” of their Buddhist faith enabled them to willingly sacrifice themselves, firm in the belief that others, particularly their comrades in the military, would follow in their footsteps and bring about the ideal society they sought. By being prepared to sacrifice themselves, they sought to ensure that as few persons as possible became victims of revolutionary violence. In short, they described themselves as so many “revolutionary sute-ishi” (lit., “cast-off stones”). Similar to pawns in chess, the sacrifice of sute-ishi at opportune times in the Japanese board game of go may lead to final victory.

If the Upāyakauśalya Sūtra is to be believed, even the three victims of Inoue’s terrorist band would be better off having been killed, for this sutra taught these allegedly wicked men would be “reborn in heaven, a good plane of existence, after death.” By extension, even the terrorist perpetrators would, thanks to their great compassion avoid the suffering of one hundred thousand kalpas of samsāra. In short, everyone should end up a “winner.” Note, however, as Buddhist ethics scholar Peter Harvey points out, “If one’s ‘compassion’ is set within a deluded perspective and wrong view, it is in an unwholesome mind state! In the Mahāyāna, wisdom and compassion need to support each other.”

Finally, one question remains unanswered, i.e. how was it possible for Inoue to have been so completely and unconditionally devoted to the emperor? The answer is because Inoue believed that once complete political control had been restored to the emperor, he would, of his own accord, initiate the reforms necessary to mitigate unemployment, improve factory working conditions and institute land reform to end poverty in the countryside. Furthermore, the emperor would eliminate corrupt politicians and end the self-indulgent, luxurious lifestyle of the leaders of corporate conglomerates, the zaibatsu.

Like all Japanese of his era, Inoue had been taught from childhood that the emperor was the benevolent father of the Japanese people, all of whom were “His Majesty’s children” (J. sekishi). Moreover, the emperor was the divine descendant of the Shinto Sun goddess, Amaterasu. Thus, as a benevolent father of divine origin, why wouldn’t the emperor do his best to ensure the happiness and well-being of all his children?

Inoue’s absolute faith in, and subservience to, the emperor may rightly be seen as a form of “hero worship,” enabled, as it was, by his Zen faith of non-attachment to self. Both Inoue and the band members he trained were ever ready to sacrifice themselves on the emperor’s behalf. In this it should be remembered that a totalitarian state has no faith in the natural equality of humanity and promotes both hero worship and the social superiority of its citizens, fostering extreme ethnic chauvinism. This was as true in Hitler’s Germany as it was Imperial Japan. Ethnic chauvinism, the alleged superiority of the “Spirit of Japan” (J.Yamato damashii), was something that richly characterized the Japanese people during the wartime era.

Inoue and the members of his band took pride in the fact they embraced no fixed ideology. They were prepared to act as sute-ishi (pawns) and selflessly sacrifice themselves in order for “others” to bring about the ideal society they sought. For Inoue, as well as the members of his band, the “others” consisted of the emperor and those who faithfully carried out His wishes. Like so much of the “mindfulness meditation” movement today, facilitating its practitioners to, for example, make ‘a killing on Wall Street’, once Zen meditation is divorced from its roots in Buddhist ethics, anything is possible – with all too predictable tragic consequences. 

 

"Lessons to be Learned from Zen Terrorism"

 Part IV (conclusion) of Brian Victoria's Four-part Series:

Compassionate Assassinations: The Role of Zen Buddhism in Inoue Nissho's ultranationalist violence in 1932 Japan.

In this--the final installment--of Brian Victoria’s essay series, he brings home insights into the nature of terrorism. He contextualizes Inoue Nissho as an example of an individual driven to make certain choices under conditions that have, and will continue to compel, others like him. Terrorism that appears religiously motivated—as has been assumed of Islamic terrorists for the last three decades—is often linked to sociopolitical root causes and motivations. How can we understand the cognitive dissonance that allows a terrorist to see himself as noble, selfless, even compassionate? 

 Brian’s concludes by panning out from Japan in 1932 to reveal the realities that create the potential for terrorism in 2020 and beyond. This is one of Library of Social Science’s crucial objectives: to link past and present, history and contemporaneity, in order to map the patterns that shape—and distort—collective psychology. The pathologies that manifest in the symptomology of terrorism are fantastical, mythological, and often irrational—while rooted in the lived experience of the body…even a body that has been laid on the altar of sacrifice.

Alexander Chirila, PhD

 

Brian Victoria, author of Zen Terror, Zen War Stories, and Zen at War, is a well-known author specializing in Japanese  history, a career professor, and Buddhist priest of the Soto Zen sect--giving him a unique perspective on the intersection between Zen Buddhism and nationalist violence.

Brian holds a Master's in Buddhist Studies from Komazawa University in Tokyo and a PhD in Religious Studies from Temple University. His distinguished career has taken him around the world, including teaching positions in Buddhism, Japanese language and culture in the United States, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. From 2013-2015 Brian was a visiting research fellow at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies in Kyoto and is currently a Senior Research Fellow at the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. Brian Victoria's work on Japanese militarism represents the highest standard of scholarly rigor and expertise.

 

 

Zen Terror in Prewar Japan by Brian Victoria



To view Brian's wikipedia page click here.

Zen Terror in Prewar Japan: Portrait of an Assassin

For information on ordering through Amazon, PLEASE CLICK HERE.

Zen Terror in Prewar Japan completes the trilogy detailing how Zen Buddhism gave rise to terrorism. Exploring the role of Inoue Nissho - the leader of the terrorist group of right-wing ultranationalism in prewar Japan, Brian Victoria sheds light on how the dark underbelly of a religion known for its promotion of peace was used to justify violence. 

REVIEWS

Brian Victoria masterfully describes how peace-practicing Zen Buddhism was utilized as an ideological weapon for justifying terrorist acts in prewar Japan, fervently supporting Japan’s emperor system ideology. The book is not just an historical study but also a dire warning of the danger that, if abused, a peace-loving religion can be exploited to rationalize violence.

— Yuki Tanaka, author of Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II

I am delighted to draw attention to the work of Brian Victoria. His expertise in Zen Buddhism comes both from intensive study of the Japanese sources and from his many years of personal experience. In both areas he has devoted himself to finding the truth and to conveying it with unflinching honesty and lucidity. His bold statements and candid judgments are supported by unambiguous evidence and deserve to be pondered on by all who care about Buddhism and have humane values at heart.

— Richard Gombrich, Boden Professor of Sanskrit Emeritus, University of Oxford

INTRODUCTION TO PART IV OF THE SERIES

The final essay asks whether the limited acts of terrorism introduced in this series may suggest avenues of approach, or provide hints, leading to a better understanding of religious terrorism as a whole. I posit the view that Inoue and his band of zen terrorists offer a variety of instructive insights, or at least "hypotheses," about the nature of religious terrorism that may prove helpful in ameliorating this destructive phenomenon in the future.

PART IV: LESSONS TO BE LEARNED FROM ZEN TERRORISM

I would be the first to admit that it is dangerous to use a study of limited acts of terrorism by members of only one religion to draw blanket conclusions about all acts of terrorism on the part of adherents of a variety of religions.

Nevertheless, it’s fair to ask whether a study of limited acts of terrorism may suggest avenues of approach, or provide hints, leading to a broader understanding of this phenomenon. In this regard, I believe Inoue and his band of Zen terrorists offer a variety of instructive insights. These insights, or hypotheses, are offered here with the hope that they may prove helpful to future studies of religion-related terrorism.

The first hypothesis is that terrorism is essentially a tactic employed by the weak against the strong— for the simple reason that terrorists, at least sub-state terrorists, lack the means to employ any other method. Inoue’s initial plan was to train a cadre of youthful activists dedicated to the drastic reform of Japanese society through legal and peaceful means. It was only after he, and those around him, concluded that social reform couldn’t wait—the immediate need was too great—that he embraced terrorism.

Thus, to believe, as many governments do, that it is possible to “stamp out” or “eradicate” terrorism by killing every terrorist they find is akin to believing, in the case of an air force, that aerial bombardment as a tactic of warfare can be permanently eliminated if every living bombardier (or drone operator) is killed. Desperate situations inevitably give rise to desperate measures, and those who were not terrorists in the beginning come to embrace terrorism even at the cost of their lives. Terrorists cannot be killed out of existence. So long as desperate situations exist, there will always be more.

Second, terrorism is not simply an isolated product of crazed or fanatical religious adherents. Instead, there are nearly always underlying political, economic, and social causes associated with terrorist acts. Japan in the 1930s was a deeply socially and economically unjust society. For example, many poor tenant farmers were forced to sell their daughters into a lifetime of prostitution and degradation.

Additionally, many of the political leaders, corrupted by their ties with zaibatsu business conglomerates, showed little concern for the welfare of the majority of the Japanese people. It is not surprising that the economic disparity between rich and poor led to attempts, increasingly violent, to enact major social reform. When it becomes clear that peaceful means are ineffective, terror seems to some to be the only possibility remaining.

Third, terrorists do not view themselves as hate-filled, bloodthirsty monsters motivated by the desire to kill for the sake of killing. Instead, as incongruous as it may seem, the Zen terrorists described in these essays were motivated by nothing less than “compassion,” that is, what they regarded as their deep concern for compatriots.

This led Inoue and his band to adopt the Buddhist-influenced motto “kill one that many may live.” Their religious faith enabled them to convince themselves their actions were just and moral, motivated by compassion and concern for the well-being of the majority of the exploited and oppressed in Japan, especially the rural poor. For them, the ends justified the means; a few must die if the majority were to flourish under the benevolent rule of the emperor, to whom absolute power was to be restored.

Religion-related terrorists typically care so much about protecting or rescuing their compatriots in perceived need that they are prepared to sacrifice their own lives in the process of carrying out their terrorist acts. Inoue and his band, it will be recalled, regarded themselves as no more than expendable “pawns” (J. sute-ishi) in the struggle to reform Japan.

It was this conviction that allowed them (and those sympathetic to them) to view themselves as Buddhist Bodhisattvas, ever ready to sacrifice their own welfare for the sake of others. Needless to say, such self-sacrifice resonates with the tenets of many religious faiths, allowing terrorists (and their supporters) to regard themselves as not only ethical but even unselfish exemplars of their faith.

In his review of The Psychoanalysis of War, Richard Koenigsberg cites Franco Fornari as follows:

Those who make war are not driven by a hate need, but by a love need. They feel they must accept the need for self-sacrifice so that their love objects might live. Men see war as a duty toward their love object. What is at stake in war is not so much the safety of the individual as the safety of the collective love object.

The focus of the review is the “love need” of soldiers, not terrorists. Yet, if one were to substitute “the acts of terrorists” for “the acts of soldiers,” this description would fit perfectly with Inoue and his band’s motivations.

It should therefore come as no surprise that terrorists affiliated with other religions, or even no religion, view themselves in a similar positive light. As much as many adherents of today’s major organized religions might wish to deny it, each of their faiths, over its long history, has developed mechanisms, whether regarding acts of war or acts of terrorism, to allow adherents to believe sacrificing themselves “so that their love objects might live” is not only moral and just but also sacred, no matter how injurious to others their acts might be.

The prevailing sentiment throughout the world—at least in non-Islamic countries —is that Islam, or at least some aspects of “Islamic extremism,” are chiefly if not solely responsible for religion-related terrorist acts. The proffered “solution” (or demand) is that Muslims change their terror-prone religion into a religion of peace by abandoning doctrines like jihad.

The unstated assumption is, of course, that the world’s other major religions lack such violence-affirming doctrines and are completely peaceful. However, as Inoue and his band reveal, Buddhism, especially in its Zen formulation, is quite capable of serving as an “enabling mechanism” to kill even those whom Zen master Yamamoto Gempō referred to as “good men.” In reality, no religion is free of having committed terrorist acts or providing the doctrinal/ethical justification for terrorism.

Placed in historical context, today’s “Islamic terror” is no more, religiously speaking, than the “flavor of the day,” the immediate problem. This is certainly not to deny that Islam-related terror is a deadly serious issue, but it is also a Buddhist, Christian, Jewish, and Hindu issue. Simply placing the blame on the “other” religion, Islam in this instance is not the solution. On the contrary, doing so effectively blocks a solution since it prevents mutual understanding and leads to an unfounded self-righteous attitude on the part of adherents of non-Islamic faiths.

Fifth, religion-linked terrorism is, first and foremost, a form of political (not religious) violence. One of the least understood, yet critically important, elements of such terrorism is that terrorists are often, consciously or not, manipulated and supported by much bigger players behind the scenes to accomplish the latter’s political goals. This is not to deny the existence of individual “lone-wolf ” acts of religion-linked terrorism committed by unaffiliated individuals on sudden impulse, personal animosity, or mental illness. But lone-wolf acts, in terms of accomplishing major political goals, typically have but limited impact.

In the case of Inoue and his band, it is impossible to deny they enjoyed behind-the-scenes connections to, if not support from, some of Japan’s most powerful political and military figures. Significantly, this support continued even after their arrests and was especially effective during the subsequent trial, imprisonment, and post-incarceration. From beginning to end, Inoue and his band’s terrorist acts would have been unthinkable without this support.

To give but one example, what other “terrorist leader” has ever had his very court conviction erased from the legal record, only to then become the live-in advisor of his country’s prime minister? Nevertheless, there is no definitive evidence indicating exactly who Inoue and his band’s powerful patrons were.

Finally, if the ethical blindness of terrorists is to be condemned, as it should be, this does not mean there are no ethical questions to be asked of those (typically governments and their militaries) who seek to kill terrorists. The foremost of these questions is, in the absence of a fair and impartial judicial process, what gives governments the right (other than brute force) to become judge, jury, and executioner of those it deems to be terrorists or sometimes merely suspects of being terrorists?

However imperfect it may have been, Inoue and his band were given a public trial at which they had the right to defend themselves. Are we ready today to recognize that even terrorists, as harmful as their acts are, possess fundamental human rights?